|
Leo Africanus of Spain,
who visited Songhay in the 16th century, wrote that the people
of Songhay surpassed, "all other Negroes in wit, civility and
industry."1
"(The) Songhay state
encouraged the flowering of a brilliant intellectual civilization and
considerable economic and social development."
S.M. Cissoko, Professor at the University
of Dakur in Senagal2
Songhay was a powerful
kingdom by the 11th century. Their Askia (King) converted to
Islam in 1019; this though was an economic tactic to placate the Muslim
merchants to the North. In 1325, under the reign of Mansa Musa, Mali
conquered the Songhay kingdom. That lasted only a short time and Songhay
regained its independence in 1375.
The Songhay empire later
eclipsed their former Mali rulers:
Askia Sonni Ali, reigning from 1464-92, conquered the great Mali cities of Jenne and Timbuktu,
pushing the Tuareg Berbers--who had conquered much of Mali--back north. Askia
Muhammad, reigning from 1493 to 1528, increased the government's central
authority and expanded the kingdom westward to the Atlantic, eastward
into the central Sudan,
and northwest into the Saharan Desert.
Top
Government
The royal court--under a system developed by Sonni Ali and later reformed
and expanded by Askia Muhammad--appointed governors and mayors over
districts on the Niger Valley and allowed local rulers to remain in power
on the Niger river's tributaries; There were likely exceptions but that
was the general rule.3
The Askia chose men to head
different government departments. The Askia's (King's) council included
the Master of Water; who was commander of the nations navy, hi koi; who
controlled the governors of the provinces, a minister of agriculture; who
dealt with revenue and settled land disputes, a Commissioner of waters
and lakes, a Commissioner of Forests, a wanei farma; who dealt with
property, a Finance Minister; who dealt with the imperial treasury, a
Property Master, the bana farma; who was responsible for the nations
wages, a doi farma; who was a chief buyer, a Minister of Foreigners, and
others whose functions we are not sure of.4
The central government
originally presided over only a small number of provinces. Most provinces
were governed indirectly--given almost complete autonomy as long as they
paid a set amount of taxes. The only time the central government of
Songhay intervened was when the provinces' affairs created a potentially
volatile situation. Each of the provinces and cities had many government
officials that performed duties similar to the central bureaucrats.
Askia (King) Sonni Ali, was
described by European kings as, "bold in the field and cunning in
council," and by his own people as, "the most high."
Despite this admiration he was hated by devout Muslims, who considered
him, as medieval Sudanese historian Es-Sadi proclaimed, a "master
tyrant" and a "scoundrel."5
He was so hated by the Islamic community that many of his own countrymen
fought against him, siding with the Islamic Tuareg--a lighter skinned
black people. The hatred between Sonni Ali and the Muslims stemmed from
the Tuareg's attempts to control the Middle Niger. Ali was especially
brutal to all those sympathetic and willing to trade with the Tuareg.
Despite conflicts with the Muslim community he proved to be a skilled
administrator, taking major steps to centralize his kingdom. Daniel Chu
and Elliot Skinner wrote, "Above all else Sonni Ali was an able
ruler with a real talent for organization and government."6
The Kingdom achieved greater
centralization under the devout Muslim Askia Muhammad, (1493-1528) who
took control of the kingdom after overthrowing Ali's successor, who like
Sunni Ali refused to discard his pagan beliefs--Ironically Askia Muhammad
was one of Sunni Ali's lieutenants. Muhammad, also known as Askia the
Great, was described by S.M. Cissoko as "…an enlightened
sovereign…a fervent Muslim, a balanced, moderate man and a far-sighted
politician."7
He quickly replaced Ali's council with his own men, establishing,
"an order of precedence and protocol." He also won back the
Muslim community by encouraging learning by giving professors larger
pensions.8
In addition, he gave generously to the poor.
The following excerpt,
taken from a Sudanese book written shortly after the reign of Askia
Muhammad, clearly demonstrates the love Muhammad's countrymen had for
him: "One cannot find his like among those who preceded him nor among those who came after him. He had a
lively affection for the doctor, holy persons, and students. He gave much
alm…and undertook special religious devotions. Full of respect for the
doctors, he distributed…wealth to them generously to assure the interest
of the Moslems and to help them in their submission to God and in the
practice of their faith. He caused all the bloody cruelties, iniquities,
and faulty innovations introduced by the Sunni to disappear. He
established religion (Islam) on the most solid base."9
Top
Law
Askia Muhammad appointed many Muslim judges to increase Islamic
influence. The new law had both Islamic and indigenous qualities. The
supreme judge was the Kadis, a lifetime position appointed by the king.
The power of the Kadi even surpassed the Askia's in matters of law; for
the Askia and the judicial system were separate. Some of Kadi's functions
were freeing slaves, dividing inheritances, confirming private documents,
and always working to guarantee order and freedom.10
Askia Ishak II later established a court dealing with acts of immorality;
some of which--adultery for instance--were severely punished.
"Between 1493 and 1529
he (Askia Mohammed I) transformed Songhay into one of the major empires
of the world, controlling much of West Africa south of the Sahara, from
the Atlantic coast in the west, through the Niger and Benue river basins,
to Lake Chad in the east…He codified the legal system, established a
centralized bureaucracy to govern his kingdom, formed an effective
banking and credit system, and provided education from kindergarten
through the University of Sankore in Timbuktu."11
Top
Economy
Songhay was essentially a caste system. If a person belonged to a
particular clan they usually performed a particular economic function.
Common castes were fishermen, metalworkers, and carpenters. At the top of
the caste were descendants of the original Songhay people, the Kukya.
Next in line were the freemen, traders, and members of the army.
Following them were non-farming slaves--slaves often held very high
positions in Songhay's society: many government officials and soldiers
were slaves. At the bottom were war captives and slaves used for farm
labor.
Songhay had organized labor
somewhat like modern day unions; according to Olsen, Songhay possessed,
"elaborate family craft guilds," which consisted of artisans
and mechanics.12
The Askia and his officials
played a major role in the economy. Wages were set and tariffs on
international trade were imposed. Cissoko wrote that Askia Muhammad,
"encouraged trade….which greatly enriched the empire. He made
efforts to introduce accurate measuring instruments and provide for their
inspection, to render prop justice through the kadis and to keep business in order by means of
a large staff of market inspectors. He…dug a canal in the Kabara-Timbuktu
region. He encouraged agriculture by setting up numerous farming
settlements for slaves brought back from his wars and particularly by
easing the taxes on produce."13
79 Askia Muhammad also set up banks and creditors.14
Askia Muhammad made a
glorious pilgrimage to Mecca
in 1496-7--much like Mansa Musa before him. He believed that he was the,
"Renewer of Faith," and left his brother in control of the
country on his leave. The pilgrimage wasn't as grand as Musa's because
there was no need: Mansa Musa acted extravagantly in order to seduce
foreign trade, but the Western Sudan was
already a well known economic power--thanks to Mansa Musa--by the time of
Askia Muhammad. Nevertheless the pilgrimage was great. He was accompanied
by five hundred horsemen and one thousand-foot soldiers, along with
300,000 pieces of gold. During his two-year pilgrimage Askia Muhammad
encouraged his kingdom's involvement in foreign trade by purchasing
quarters for his countrymen in many merchant cities.
Sunni Ali also played a
major role in the economic growth of Songhay. He built many dikes and
encouraged agriculture--the most prevalent economic function of the
kingdom.15
The flourishing trade enhanced the rich merchant community; The large
surplus from trade allowed an intellectual class completely devoted to
study.16
The centre of the towns and
cities contained large homes, often two stories, which were built in Sudanese style
masonry; these were the homes of the wealthy merchants, priests, and
government officials. Directly outside of the centre were the suburbs;
the suburbs consisted of tents and straw homes that shifted to maximize
agricultural productivity.17
Although the government controlled much of the economy, peasants were not oppressed; they were allowed to sell their
own products and goods after surpassing government's quotas. If they were
successful they could become an accepted members of the elite class.18
Top
After Askia Muhammad
Askia Muhammad was followed by eight successors. During that time the
strength and stability of the kingdom increased. In the reign of Askia
dawud--who the Ta'rikhs (Chronicles written by men of the Western Sudan) describe as an intelligent man and a
friend of letters--Songhay reached its apogee at that time.19
Top
Millitary
Songhay conducted a draft and organized a professional army.20
The army--mostly made of slave battalions--lived in barracks separated
from the civilian population. Mahnud Ka'ti wrote, "the great men of
the Songhay were versed in the art of war. They were very brave, very
bold and most expert in the deployment of military stratagems."21
By 1591 the army totaled 40,000 (30,000 infantry, 10,000 cavalry). Songhay
warriors wore iron breastplates beneath their battle tunics, had lances,
sabers and arrows with poisoned tips, and the infantry used leather and
copper shields.22
The cavalry, like Mali,
were the army's elite unit. The army
sounded long trumpets during battles.
Top
Sunni Ali's Capture of Timbuktu and Jenne
Around 1433 the Tuareg nomads--a black
people with medium brown skin--captured Timbuktu
from Mali.
A man named Ammar was appointed mayor. When Ammar heard of the growing
power of Songhay he sent a boastful letter to Sunni Ali proclaiming that
his Tuareg armies could still defeat anything the Songhay came at him with.
Sunni Ali responded by rushing a cavalry unit into Timbuktu. Ali took the city relatively
easy and Ammar fled.
Top
Jenne
Fleeing from a crumbling Ghana
in the 13th century, the black Sonike tribe founded the city
of Jenne.
They chose their site wisely, positioning themselves within a complex box
of treacherous swamps only reachable by twisting rivers and streams. As a
result--despite many attacks-- they were never defeated militarily. One
report suggests that Mali
attacked Jenne 99 times. Why was Jenne-- population between 30,000 to
40,000--so highly sought? That can be attributed to several factors: 1)
Learning flourished in Jenne, which was home to a large university that
contained thousands of teachers who taught subjects ranging from math to
logic to medicine.23
2) Jenne had surgeons who could perform advanced surgical operations.24
3) It had a vibrant economy25
4) It was a very beautiful sight; Chu and Skinner wrote, "Though
Timbuktu was better known to a world outside of the western Sudan, Jenne
was reputed to be far more beautiful. Jenne's attractiveness was due to
the beauty of the waterways around the city and to the imaginative
designs of many of its buildings."26
Because of Jenne's strategic
location, Sunni Ali had to conquer Jenne unconventionally. Ali starved
Jenne into surrender: not allowing any person from Jenne to leave the
city or any foreigner to enter into it. This lasted for seven years and
seven months. Sonni Ali was about to end the mission when he was given a
report that Jenne, suffering from famine, was ready to give in. Sunni Ali
did not have his army pillage Jenne, as he had Timbuktu. Instead he treated them with
absolute respect. Ali greeted Jenne's young king warmly and allowed him
to sit besides him on his royal mat. A mutual respect and friendship grew
between the officials of Songhay and Jenne. As a symbolic gesture, Ali
married the mother of Jenne's King. As Chu
and Skinner concluded, "If he (Ali) was cruel, he was also
generous."27
The surrender of Jenne took place in 1473.
Top
Scholarly nature of West Africa
As stated above, the trade surplus, along with government encouragement,
heightened Songhay's intellectual culture. In the 14th and 15th
centuries most of the native Sudanese elite received their education at
the universities of Djami al-Karawiyyin in Fez
and al-Ashar in Cairo,
but by the 16th century most of the elite received their
education in Songhay. Timbuktu
alone had 180 schools. The teachers were unpaid, but everything and more
was provided--including a large pension. The universities taught
theology, traditions, grammar, rhetoric, logic, astrology, astronomy,
history, geography, medicine, science, and math. 28
The universities gave different levels of degrees, some taking longer to
achieve than others. Askia Mohammed also created elementary schools for
learning how to read and recite the Koran. S.M Cissoko wrote: "The
Songahy state encouraged the flowering of a brilliant intellectual
civilization and considerable economic and social development."29
Top
The Fall of Songhay
Several factors led to the fall of Songhay, the final blow coming from a
late 16th century Moroccan army wielding muskets. In the years preceding the
fall several natural disasters, such as droughts, epidemics, and food
shortages were causing a type of unrest unprecedented in Songhay.30Moreover,
Portuguese intervention on the coast had been hurting the Songhay economy
for decades, destroying the once prosperous coastal trade, which now
focused on the easy wealth of slavery.31
Competition for food, a result of the droughts and the diminished coastal
trade, caused tensions between nomadic and sedentary people who had lived
in relative peace during the prosperous years of the Sudan. Nearly five years before
the Moroccan invasions the unprecedented problems created a schism within
Songhay, eventually dividing the kingdom into a civil war. Within a few
years Balama Ishak II defeated al-Sadduk, a resident of Timbuktu. Unfortunately he had little
time to reunite his country before Morocco was able to take
advantage of Songhay's diminished military power.32
Morocco--who could never defeat the Sudanese armies
before--was now, "Armed with the musket… embarked on conquest in the
south."33
In 1585 the Moroccan sultan, Mulay Ahmed el-Mansure, took the vital
Taghaza salt deposits from Songhay. Then in 1591, under the Spanish
renegade Judar, the Moroccan army overwhelmed Songhay, seizing Timbuktu and Gao.
One chronicle of the time cried, "From that moment everything
changed. Danger took the place of security, poverty of wealth. Peace gave
way to distress, disasters, and violence."34
In 1618, after 25 years of
fighting and 23,000 Moroccan deaths, the Sultan Mulay Zidan abandoned the
Songhay expeditions. Basil Davidson wrote that the Moroccan invasion,
"cost Songhay its place in history…It demolished the unity and
administrative organization of the state, and while it left Timbuktu and
Gao and Jenne as considerable cities, it robbed this civilization of its
vitality, for it temporarily ruined the trans-Saharan trade as well as
much of the internal trade of the Sudan." External warfare continued
until the Songhay nation was completely vanquished. The southern Dendi,
recognizing Songhay's weakness took over most of the ruined state. Wars
continued, and in 1884 the French, now armed with the Maxim gun, began
their attacks on the Niger.
They conquered Timbuktu
in 1894, Gao in 1898, and the much-desired Tuareg salt mines in 1900.35
It was an all too inevitable end to the once flourishing nation. "By
1600," Davidson wrote, "the great days of the western Sudan
were over."36
Top
|
|
1Afr
King, 84
2IV
202
3Iliffe,
72
4Africa
from the twelfth to the sixteenth century/ editor, D.T. Niane (London;
Heinemann Educational Books; Berkeley: University of California Press,
1984)
5Chu,
Daniel and Skinner, Elliot. A Glorious Age in Africa, 1st ed. Garden
City, New York:
Doubleday, 1965, 90
6Ibid,
91
7Africa
from the twelfth to the sixteenth century/ editor, D.T. Niane (London;
Heinemann Educational Books; Berkeley: University of California Press,
1984), 194
8Ibid
9Chu,
Daniel and Skinner, Elliot. A Glorious Age in Africa, 1st ed. Garden
City, New York:
Doubleday, 1965, 104
10Africa
from the twelfth to the sixteenth century/ editor, D.T. Niane (London;
Heinemann Educational Books; Berkeley: University of California Press,
1984), 20
112
12Olson,
James Stuart. The Ethnic Dimension in American History. New
York: St. Martin's Press,
Inc., 1979, 34
13Ibid,
36
14Africa
from the twelfth to the sixteenth century/ editor, D.T. Niane (London;
Heinemann Educational Books; Berkeley: University of California Press,
1984), 19
154
16Olsen,
35
17Ibid,
193
18Ibid,
209
19Ibid,
206
20Ibid,
205
21Ibid,
195
22Chu,
Daniel and Skinner, Elliot. A Glorious Age in Africa, 1st ed. Garden
City, New York:
Doubleday, 1965, 100
23Africa
from the twelfth to the sixteenth century/ editor, D.T. Niane (London;
Heinemann Educational Books; Berkeley: University of California Press,
1984), 200
24Ibid
25Chu,
Daniel and Skinner, Elliot. A Glorious Age in Africa, 1st ed. Garden
City, New York:
Doubleday, 1965, 91
26VanSertima,
Ivan. They Came Before Columbus.
New York:
Random House, 1976, 39
27Mckissack,
Fredrick. The Royal Kingdoms of Ghana,
Mali,
and Songhay. New Yor: Henry Holt and Company, 1994, 92
28Chu,
Daniel and Skinner, Elliot. A Glorious Age in Africa, 1st ed. Garden
City, New York:
Doubleday, 1965, 91
29Ibid,
91
30Africa
from the twelfth to the sixteenth century/ editor, D.T. Niane (London;
Heinemann Educational Books; Berkeley: University of California Press,
1984), 209
31Africa
from the twelfth to the sixteenth century/ editor, D.T. Niane (London;
Heinemann Educational Books; Berkeley: University of California Press,
1984), 202
Top
|